Book Of The Dead
The great Egyptian funerary work
called pert em hru properly
meaning "coming forth by day"
or "manifested in the light." The work
consists of collections of spells
which was believed to aid the dead
in the crossing to the next
life. There are several versions or
renditions of the work, namely
the Helipolis, Thebes, and Salis. Each
version is mainly the same except
for the differences found in the
translations made by the colleges
of priests at the various centers.
Its theme is thaumaturgic as
its purpose is to protect the dead from
dangers which they face when
attempting to reach the other world. The
spells were usually found on
papyrus or leather in intimate
association with the corpse
- - beside of it in the coffin, actually
inside the mummy wrappings,
or inserted inside of a small statue of a
funerary deity. It is believed
that many of the spells were recited
by priests at the funeral and
also that their presence within the
reach of the deceased made them
available to him when he needed them.
Many papyri of sections from
the Book of the Dead as well as sections
themselves have been discovered
inscribed on tombs, pyramids, and
sarcophagi.
Origin and Development
The earliest examples of the
Book of the Dead are from the 18th
dynasty (1570-1304 BC). However
some sections of these examples have
been found in earlier known
Egyptian funerary texts. These were the
so-called Pyramid Tests inscribed
on inner chamber walls of 5th, 6th,
and 8th dynasty rulers. These
Pyramid Texts insured the survival only
of the pharaoh whose name they
contained and his subjects over whom
he would rule in the Hereafter.
Royal relatives and courtiers who
were granted favor to be buried
in tombs surrounding the pyramid were
perhaps fortunate enough to
reach the realms of the blessed through
the agency of the ruler.
Until the final era of the Old
Kingdom (2664-2155 BC) there is little
knowledge of the funerary liturgy
for the ordinary Egyptian. His hope
for survival is suggested by
the fact from earliest times he was
buried in a substantial grave
which his wealth would provide; and
accompanying his body would
be ornaments, weapons, food and beverage,
clothing and cosmetics. It was
in the period of to Old Kingdom that
the process of mummification
was developed to improve the
preservation of the body itself.
The Coffin Tests, which are selections
from the Pyramid Texts, were
found in coffins from the late
6th dynasty (2341-2181 BC) until the
Middle Kingdom (2051-1756 BC).
When coffins became mummy-shaped at
the beginning of the 18th century
it was more convenient to set the
incantations on papyrus, and
the Book of the Dead proper began
developing. There are discovered
copies from all sequential periods
of Egyptian history, with the
latest being Roman in date.
Form:
Most of the texts of the Book
of the Dead are arranged in vertical
columns and often are written
in simplified linear hieroglyphs or in
old-fashioned hieratic script.
A few late examples exist where the
lines are horizontal and in
contemporary script. Sometimes plain
black ink was used, but frequently
the titles of spells and important
words were written in red. Illustrations
could range from few to
many, they varied from plain
black-line drawings to beautiful
drawings in lavish color.
The number and order of the spells
varied greatly in the 18th and 19
dynasty versions of the Book
of the Dead apparently on the command or
wishes of the person commissioning
the copy. By the Ptolemaic period
(320-322 BC) the number and
order of the spells were standardized,
and during the publication of
the papyrus in the same period a
consecutive numbering of the
spells was applied. This consecutive
numbering continued as further
spells were added. There are presently
over 200 spells, but not all
are contained in any one discovered
papyrus.
Concepts of the Hereafter:
The various glimpses of the afterlife
provided in Egyptian funerary
literature give a very complicated
and confusing picture. A New
Kingdom book (1554-1075 BC)
entitled the Book of What Is in the
Netherworld describes the Hereafter
as a subterranean region
completely devoid of light during
the day. An area divided into 12
regions, each called a "cavern"
and ruled by a king whose subjects
are "spirits." The many sections
are connected by a great river
similar to the Nile. Along this
river during the night, sails a boat
of the sun god bringing light
and joy to the dwellers of the
underground regions.
The illustrations in Chapter
110, depict the realm of Osiris, which
was believed to be the sixth
region of the Hereafter. It was shown as
an agricultural area connected
by canals. In one part were several
islands, and Osiris held court
on one of them. It was in the "Hall of
the Two Truths" that the trails
of the deceased were held. If the
deceased could prove his worthiness
he was ferried across the waters
where he could pursue a peaceful
existence of plowing, reaping, and
threshing, or having these things
done for him by servants who was
bound to work for him at his
request.
Selected Spells:
After death the Egyptian hoped
to be free to return to the earth
during the day or be accepted
as one of the blessed in the realm of
Osiris. The Book of the Dead
contains a variety of hymns, magic
formulae, litanies, incantations,
prayers, and words of power which
clearly was to be recited with
the intent of helping the decease to
overcome obstacles which might
prevent him from achieving the above
objectives. Spell 1b, for example,
gives the body power to enter the
Hereafter immediately after
burial. (Translations are from T. G.
Allen, The Egyptian Book of
the Dead Documents in the Oriental
Institute Museum at the University
of Chicago): "As for one who knows
this roll on earth or puts it
in writing on his coffin, he goes forth
by day in any form he wishes
and enters his place again unhindered.
There are given to him bread
and beer and a chunk of meat from the
altar of Re. He arrives at the
Field of Rushes, and barely and wheat
are given to him there. So he
shall be thriving as he was on earth."
Spells 2-4 give the decease the
power to revisit the earth, visit the
gods, and travel in the sky.
Spell 6 binds the funerary statuette on
which it was painted or carved
to "volunteer" to perform any labors
required of its master or mistress
in the Hereafter. Spells 21-23
secured the help of several
gods in "opening the mouth" of the
deceased, enabling him to perform
such functions as breathing and
eating. Spell 25 restored the
deceased's memory, 42 put every part of
the body under the protection
of a god or goddess, 43 protected the
body from decapitation, 44,
prevented the deceased from dying a
second time, and 130-131 enable
to use the boats of sunrise and
sunset.
Spell 154 has an address to Osiris
by the deceased that partially
said: "I continue to exist,
I continue to exist, alive, alive,
enduring, enduring. I awake
in peace untroubled. I shall not parish
younder… My skull shall not
suffer, my ear shall not become deaf, my
head shall not leave my neck,
my tongue shall not be taken, my hair
shall not be cut off, my eyebrows
shall not fall off. No harm shall
happen to my corpse. It shall
not pass away, it shall not parish,
from this land forever, and
ever."
Perhaps the best-known chapter
in the Book of the Dead is 125
containing the episode of judgment.
In the accompany vignette, Osiris
is enthroned, usually on the
left, and facing four minor deities
including the underworld goddess
Ammut, who is depicted with the head
of a crocodile, trunk and forelimbs
of a lion, and the hind part of a
hippopotamus, and has the responsibility
of devouring the dead who
are found unworthy. In the center
is a great balance with the heart
of the deceased in one pan,
and a feather representing truth in the
other. The gods Horus and Anubis
check the balance and Thoth records
the result. To the right of
the deceased is received by Maat, the
goddess of truth; 42 deities
sit in judgment around the hall.
The deceased is required to make
his own defense. He first addresses
Osiris in words that are part
hymn and part spell. Then he recites a
general "declaration of innocence"
which is a denial of various
evildoings and breaches of ritual
customs. "I have not oppressed
dependents." "I have not caused
anyone to go hungry." "I have not
caused anyone to weep." "I have
not diminished the food offerings in
the temples…I have not taken
the cakes set aside for the blessed." "I
am pure." He does this to assure
Osiris that he has lived a
reasonably decent life on earth,
(or he knows the litany for
declaring that he has) and that
his body is complete and ritually
pure.
Next he begins addressing the
42 deities denying various faults to
each. It is at this point in
his trial that he could really triumph
by speaking their secret names
and places of origin, thus gaining
control over them. Here he needs
the powerful magic of the knowledge
of the secret names and places
of origin of Osiris and the other 42
deities. By such knowledge he
could coerce their judgment in his
favor.
Lastly the dead person addresses
his heart, beseeching it not to bear
witness against him. It is at
this point in his trial that the
deceased loses all control of
his defense. If the heart does not
confirm the person's innocence
(which never happens in the vignette)
the person is lost. But when
the heart confirms the person's
innocence, then Horus leads
the individual before Osiris who assigns
the person a proper place in
the realm of the blessed.
Summary:
So it can be seen that according
to the general outline of the Book
of the Dead that it was thought
that even in the afterlife the person
still might scheme and coerce
if he possessed the right knowledge.
Such knowledge laid in the spells
and hymns of the book which a few
was along with him least he
would not forget them. First he needed
the knowledge to fight off the
dangers which he probably would face
along his journey to the realm
of the blessed. As in most Egyptian
mythology the dead would combat
malignant spirits and other dangers.
Also, he needed the knowledge
to influence or coerce the deities
judging him at his trial in
the Hall of Two Truths. The work abounds
with magical references. This
is why many are of the opinion that the
material in the work gives the
conception that stipulation is mingled
with the idea of circumvention
by sorcery in the most extraordinary
manner.